09
Apr
2024

“That isn’t really a pig”

Gerald McCormack, CINHT

The Cook Islands has a rich tradition of working with spirits. In ancient times all misfortune and ill-health were attributed to spirits who consisted of a plethora of Gods (Atua/Aitu) and the countless souls of deceased people (vaerua tangata).

Life revolved around the priests (ta‘unga) who could communicate with the spirits and negotiate some form of appeasement, such as a change in behaviour, sacrificing a pig or, in extreme cases, a person. For example, Mangaia prehistory was a succession of intrigues and battles to establish the supreme ruler for the island and the successful candidate arranged a human sacrifice to the god Rongo to assure peace during his reign.

In this article we look at some of the animals used by the visiting spirits of deceased people (tūpāpaku) and in ancient times by visiting Gods (Atua/Aitu).

“That isn’t really a pig”

Illustration by Kata

In the 1970s anthropologist Christian Clerk recorded many spirit stories including one from an informant who had been riding his motorbike at night through Te ‘Utu-o-Apera in Upper Tūpapa: “Suddenly, there was a big pig right in front of me. The bike hit it and I fell off. The headlamp was broken. When I got up I couldn’t see the pig. Next day I told some people who live around there. They said, ‘You saw it. That isn’t really a pig, it’s usually a cow.’ They meant it was a tūpāpaku. There are plenty of stories about things that have happened at that place.”

In this case the spirit took the form of a pig with mischievous intent. In a similar way Ta‘akura, a tūpāpaku who takes the form of a red-headed woman, has been reported mainly around Muri. Many years ago, Ta‘akura killed herself over an unfaithful boyfriend or, in another account, was killed by a gang of rejected suitors. As a tūpāpaku she seeks revenge on men by luring them into danger. A third area popular with spirits is around Tuoro or Black Rock, which was traditionally a reinga or leaping-place for the spirits of the recently deceased to enter the underworld.

In addition to favouring certain areas, spirits have traditionally been more active on certain nights of the lunar cycle or ‘arāpō. For example, on Rākau Ta‘i (18th night) and Roto Rākau (19th) spirits were more commonly encountered by fisherman at sea.

Freshwater eels

Giant Longfin Eel or Tuna Pupu.

One of the most well-known ancient stories involves a freshwater eel. ‘Ina or ‘Ina-moe-Aitu lived near Tamarua on Mangaia and bathed in a nearby stream. Sometimes an eel rubbed against her legs and one day the eel transformed into a handsome youth who explained that he was Tuna, the eel-God. They became lovers.

One day Tuna announced that they must part, but in memory of their love he would give her people a gift. He explained that there would be a flood in which he would swim to her hut on the hill where ‘Ina was to chop off his head, bury it and then visit the site everyday. The flood came and ‘Ina played her part and after many days the first coconut palm grew on that spot. To this day, the shell of the coconut has the two eyes and mouth of Tuna on the base.

Giant Longfin Eel or Tuna Pupu is the largest freshwater eel of the Cook Islands, often reaching over a meter in length. This species typically lives in streams from near the mouth to mid-elevation.

Birds of the night

Wedge-tailed Shearwater or Ūpoa

Petrels and shearwaters are birds that spend weeks or months at sea and typically only come ashore during the breeding season at night. The Wedge-tailed Shearwater or Ūpoa is rare but well-known on most islands because of its very distinctive call, which is an uncanny imitation of a crying baby.  There is no significance in a call or two as an Ūpoa flies over during the night but if it calls repeatedly over the same area it is a harbinger of death in a noble family. It is one of the few times when being a commoner or tangata iti is worthwhile. Another night-bird sometimes associated with spirits is the Black-winged Petrel, the Tītī or Tītīrākoa, which has a “te-te-te-te-te-te-te” call. This fernland nesting bird, which was once common on Mangaia and ‘Ātiu, is now very rare because of predation by feral cats.

The Kingfisher

Ngōtare or Chattering Kingfisher

On Atiu the Chattering Kingfisher or the Ngōtare can be the harbinger of an imminent death within the nobility, although at other times it can bring good news. This bird was involved in the discovery of the beautiful cave of Anatakitaki, which is one of two caves where Atiu Swiftlets or Kōpeka roost and nest.

In ancient times, the chief Paroro discovered that his wife had been unfaithful and beat her. Inutoto ran away and lived for months as a hermit in a cave in the rugged makatea and eventually the community decided that she had died. However, Inutoto composed a song about the loss of her husband and her god Tu heard her plea. He sent a Ngōtare to Paroro which eventually convinced him to follow and the bird lead him to discover Anatakitaki and to be reunited with his wife. Different versions of Inutoto’s lament are still well-known.

One version reverses the roles in the conflict with Inutoto accusing her husband of having affairs and after an argument she hides in the makatea forest to scare him. Unfortunately she got lost and despite months of searching Paroro couldn’t find her. Eventually Tangaroa took pity on Paroro and sent a Ngōtare to lead him to Anatakitaki to be joyfully reunited with his near-starving wife.

Insects as messengers

‘Iriano or White-brow Hawkmoth

There is a Mangaia proverb “The spirit-cricket is chirping” (Kua tangi te Vava) which refers to the chirping of the Pacific Scaly Cricket or Vava as signalling the presence of a spirit. In ancient times it was thought to be a warrior spirit calling his friends while to others it was thought to be the voice of the god Tane. In more recent times it is just a deceased ancestor watching or warning about events within the family. The call has been described as “kere-kere-tao-tao”.

Image caption: Pacific Scaly-Cricket or Vava. The male of this flightless cricket uses its reduced wing-covers to make its courtship call. While female crickets can orientate to the singing male, people are confused by this great ventriloquist.

The largest local moth, the White-brow Hawkmoth or ‘Iriano can visit houses possessed by a spirit of a deceased relative who is keeping an eye on events or warning members to behave better.

Lizards as messengers

Moko Ngararā or Polynesian Gecko

The day-active glossy skinks are apparently not used by spirits, while the nocturnal, goggle-eyed geckos are. When one of the traditional house geckos, the small Mournful Gecko or the large Polynesian Gecko is noisy it can indicate that it is possessed by a spirit who is watching or warning family members to stop misbehaving.

In ancient times spirits were the main cause of ill-health and misfortune. Nowadays, with a few exceptions, they are well-meaning and encourage people to be better behaved towards other people.

 

Author’s notes
First published in the Cook Island News, 25 Feb 2012
Special acknowledgements and notes. Illustration by Kata. Christian Clerk, Anthropologist, MS 13 Mar 1976
Posted by Gerald in Animals, Culture, 0 comments
23
Feb
2024

Cook Islands Humpback Whales – Part 1

Gerald McCormack, CINHT

The dedicated researchers in the South Pacific Whale Research Consortium, including Nan Hauser, have made a large contribution to the recent explosion of information about Humpback Whales. Although science is always a “work in progress” this seems like a good time to review 34 papers up to 2014.

Humpback vitals

Humpback breeching

The vernacular name humpback refers to the arching of the back as they dive. The unusual Latin name, Megaptera novaeangliae translates to “big-wings of New England”. They were first described around 1750 as the “baleen whale of New England” after the area where they were common, along the northeast coast of the US. A hundred years later, around 1850 they were separated from the other baleen whales and given the name Megaptera or “big wings”, because of their unusually long pectoral fins.

At birth humpbacks are about 4.5m and weigh around one tonne. They feed on mother’s milk for about six months, then increasingly feed themselves on krill, and are weaned at about a year. Females mature at about five years and eventually reach an average of 15 metres and 35 tonnes; males are usually around 14 metres. Females breed every 2-3 years and pregnancies last about 11 months. They can live 50-100 years.

Mother and calf

Humpbacks are famous for their long migrations between summer feeding areas around Antarctica and winter breeding areas in the subtropics, about 5,000km apart. At a typical migration rate of 3-6km/hr or 70-140km/day (Horton et al. 2011) it takes them 35-70 days to cover the 5,000km. For comparison, people typically walk at about 5km/hr, about the same speed as whales migrate.

Around Antarctica they feed on tiny shrimp-like animals called krill that form immense swarms, and adult whales can consume about 1.5 tonnes-a-day. During this time they develop an immense layer of fatty tissue known as blubber upon which they live during the 6-8 months of migration and breeding.

In their subtropical breeding grounds humpbacks are famous for their spectacular leaping out of the water (“breaching”) and for the long songs of the males.

Yankee whalers

Antarctic krill – photo from Wikipedia

Life in the Cook Islands was transformed by the non-sectarian London Missionary Society missionaries arriving in the 1820s with the Gospel and a plethora of new plants and animals.

They encouraged people to raise the new crops and animals to sell to visiting ships and traders. In addition to provisioning the whaling ships, young men often joined as replacement crew. Rarotonga sailors were tattooed with the Rau Teve pattern on the side of their necks so they could recognise each other in distant places.

The main islands for provisioning were Rarotonga and Aitutaki. Richards (2014) reported that Yankee whalers called at Rarotonga as follows: one (1820s), 16 (’30s), 82 (’40s), 134 (’50s), 39 (’60s), 13 (’70s), 7 (’80s) and none thereafter. The analysis was based on a partial collection of logbooks and Richards concluded that the actual number of visiting whalers was probably 2-3 times greater.

These whalers were known as Yankee whalers because they came from coastal towns in the New England area, especially from Nantucket and New Bedford in Massachusetts.

Yankee whaling began around 1650 killing Right and Humpback Whales feeding near the New England coast. A Sperm Whale was killed in 1712 and the superior “sperm oil” from its blubber and the much-prized spermaceti or “head oil” lead to whalers sailing further and further to find them.

By 1780 they were whaling everywhere in the north and south Atlantic, along with a few British whalers. They entered the Pacific around 1790 and within a few years were whaling throughout the ocean, except around Antarctica which was too cold and inhospitable.

Humpback kills by American Sailing Whalers

The Yankee whaling industry peaked around 1850 when there were about 740 ships under the US flag. The industry went into steady decline after about 1860 and finished around 1920.

Townsend’s (1935) analysis of whaler logbooks showed that between Fiji and French Polynesia they killed very few Sperm Whales, and humpbacks as follows: two in Fiji; none in Samoa; 297 in Tonga; three in Cook Islands; and none in the Societies. He analyzed about 10% of the voyages and concluded that actual kills were probably 5-10 times more than shown. He also found that nearly all the humpbacks were killed in August and September. See Figure 1.

The relative number of whales killed in each area is particularly interesting because it provides the earliest data on the distribution of humpback across the South Pacific. It is very obvious that they bred mainly around Tonga and rarely elsewhere.

Smith et al. (2006) re-analyzed Townsend’s data and other information to discover that all whaling in Tonga occurred within the ten years of the 1870s and they estimated that about 2,837 whales were killed. Humpbacks were a last resort for the Yankee whalers because the blubber gave the least valuable whale oil, they were relatively fast and difficult to catch, and they often sank before they could be secured.

As a result of Yankee whaling there was a development of shore-based whaling in Tonga and the Cook Islands. It is not known when it started in the Cook Islands. Powell (1979) reported that the last whale killed on Rarotonga was in 1914 by a gang working for Makea Nui Tinirau Ariki.

This might be mistaken, because the PIM 1930 reported that “Recently there have been numerous whales … and the natives spent endless hours chasing after them….. with no luck but on two occasions managed to scratch the whales with harpoons. However, Aitutaki natives …. landed two whales…” (PIM 1930Dec.  v.1(5):9).  It is not known when local whaling ceased, although there was no further mention of whaling in 1930s PIM.

The July onset of flowering of the indigenous Ngatae or Coral Tree (Erythrina variegata) was the sign to prepare the equipment and put lookouts on the hills. Upon sighting a whale or To’ōra the lookouts blew their Pū or Triton Conch (Charonia tritonis) trumpets and the rowboats were launched. Whale carcasses were brought ashore into Ngātangi’ia Harbour where the blubber was cooked in large metal pots to extract the oil, which was put in wooden barrels for export.

In Tonga the industry started in the 1890s in the Ha‘apai Group using locally constructed longboats; the oil was sold to trading ships. In 1912 the operation moved to Tongatapu where Tongans soon developed a taste for whale meat and this became the main focus of the industry. (Reeves 2002)

During the 1950s and ’60s they were taking 10-20 whales-a-year, and in the 1970s eleven small operators were taking 3-8 whales-a-year. The industry was banned under the Whaling Act 1979, pending an improved stock assessment. Today, Tonga has a significant whale watching industry, which includes swimming with whales.

Tonga, Cook Islands and French Polynesia

In the last twenty years there has been great progress on monitoring whales with photographic and genetic identification and satellite tracking. These tools have enabled scientists to learn much more about whales moving between island groups, both within breeding seasons and between breeding seasons.

Resighting data to 2004 enabled it to be estimated that Tonga had about 2,300 whales, and French Polynesia about 1,000. At that stage, Cook Islands had no resightings and therefore no population estimate (Baker et al. 2006). The authors concluded that the Cook Islands was “not a primary migratory destination, but rather a part of a migratory corridor used by one or more breeding stocks”.

Genetic research in 2007 (Olavarria et al.) showed Cook Islands whales to be nearly indistinguishable from those of Tonga.  In 2007 the six Rarotonga whales with satellite tags all departed to the west or northwest (Hauser et al. 2010, Horton et al. 2011), which further supported the idea that Cook Islands’ whales are part of the Tonga group. In 1993 one whale was recorded in Mo‘orea and a month later in Palmerston which showed that sometimes whales move direct from French Polynesia to the Cook Islands (Poole 2006). See Figure 2.

To 2015, after eighteen years of monitoring, there had been only two resightings in the Cook Islands (Hauser, unpublished), which showed that whales rarely reuse the corridor.

The 2009 (Albertson-Gibb et al.) estimate for French Polynesia was 850-1,850 whales. The sub-stock is genetically distinct (Olavarria et al. 2007) with occasional sharing with other sub-stocks to the west. There has been one intra-seasonal match to the Cook Islands in 1993, and several inter-seasonal matches: Tonga (5), American Samoa (2), and New Caledonia (1) (Poole 2006). The whales of French Polynesia are most common in the Societies and northern Australs, less common in the Tuamotus and very rare in the Marquesas (Poole pers.comm.). The occurrence of this large population in French Polynesia was unexpected considering the lack of whales killed in the area by the Yankee whalers, even though they often provisioned their ships in Tahiti.

 

Author’s notes
First published Cook Island News, October 2015 to CI News
Contact Cook Island Natural Heritage Trust for full Bibliography.
Photos by Michael Poole, Kirby Morejohn and Wikipedia.
Posted by Gerald in Uncategorised, 43 comments
07
Feb
2024

Is Mangaia the oldest island?

Gerald McCormack, CIHT

A view of Mangaia north to south. The outer green belt is the raised fossil reef (makatea), which surrounds the inland volcanic hills. (Photo Ewan Smith)

In the Quarantine Quiz (CINews 29 May) the oldest island in the Pacific was listed as Mangaia at 18 million years (Ma). This idea gained popularity with the 2010 publication entitled “Tangi ke – Welcome to Mangaia – The oldest island in the Pacific”, by the Mangaia Historical and Cultural Society and the University of the South Pacific.

It is simply not true, there are many islands in the Pacific much older, and, within the Cook Islands, all the Northern Atolls are more than twice as old as Mangaia.

The Hotspots

The Southern Group islands formed from two long-lived “hotspots” to the southeast. The oldest dated-island in this complex chain is Mangaia at around 19.5Ma (million years). This makes Mangaia the oldest dated-island in the Cook-Austral chain. (See the illustration)

Mangaia originated 1,900km to the southeast at the Macdonald Hotspot, which is growing yet another island, presently within 50m of the surface. The Pacific Plate carries islands to the northwest, away from their hotspots, at about 10cm/year which accounts for the distance from Mangaia to the Macdonald Hotspot.

Showing the hotspot tracks

The Cook-Austral hotspot chain. The tracks of the Macdonald and Arago hotspots for more than 50 million years.

Other islands with evidence of a Macdonald origin are Rapa, Raivavae, Tubuai, Rurutu and Rimatara. In addition, some geologists conclude there was another undiscovered hotspot southeast of Raivavae that played a later role in the formation of Raivavae, Tubuai and various seamounts. The story is still unfolding.

The Southern Group atoll of Palmerston is of unknown age and origin. It might be a very old island like the Northern Group atolls, or it might be the most westerly member of the Cook-Austral hotspot chain.  In the latter case, it probably originated at the Arago Hotspot, which is now a small seamount 130km southeast of Rurutu. If this is the case, would Palmerston be older than Mangaia?

The islands formed by the Arago Hotspot include Aitutaki, Ātiu, Ma‘uke and Miti‘āro. Of these islands, only Ātiu is well-dated. It is 850km from Arago and dated at 8Ma. Palmerston is 1,400km from Arago giving it an estimated age of 13Ma. If Palmerston formed at Arago, Mangaia would still be the oldest island in the Cook-Austral chain.

In recent years scientists have shown that the Macdonald and Arago hotspots also made seamounts and islands in the Tokelau chain and in the Tuvalu-Gilbert chains, respectively. There the islands are an amazing 60-80Ma, and there is more speculative evidence that these hotspot tracks continue into western Micronesia to islands older than 100Ma.

Mangaia, as a child of the Macdonald Hotspot, is the oldest in the island-dense Cook-Austral archipelago. However, compared to the Macdonald’s oldest offspring in the Tokelau, Mangaia is a teenager.

The Manihiki Plateau

The Northern Group islands are all much older than Mangaia.  The massive Manihiki Plateau formed between 125-120 million years ago. It soon broke into separate sections, three of which drifted away: one to Colombia; one to Antarctica; and, one to New Zealand as the Hikurangi Plateau. The remaining section, the Manihiki Plateau, became partially divided by deep troughs.

Between 100Ma and 60Ma there were a number of small eruptions on the plateau, forming a few seamounts along with the islands of Suwarrow, Pukapuka, Nassau, Manihiki and Rakahanga. When Penrhyn grew to the east of the plateau is unknown, but is it probably more than 50Ma. All Northern Group islands are much older than Mangaia.

Since its formation near the surface the plateau has been slowly sinking. The highest section is presently about 2,500m above the surrounding seafloor, which is typically about 5,000m below sea level.

The Pacific Tectonic Plate

The Pacific Ocean overlies two main tectonic plates, the largest being the Pacific Plate. This plate started to grow about 180Ma and it has pushed other plates away to become the largest tectonic plate in the world. The edge of this plate is known as the “Ring of Fire” because it is associated with intense volcanism and earthquakes. In our area, the Pacific Plate’s western boundary is the Tonga Trench, where it subducts under the Australian Plate.

Like the Cook Islands, islands on the Pacific Plate have grown by within-plate volcanism, mainly over “hotspots”. In the western South Pacific, on the Australian Plate there are many large islands in Fiji, Vanuatu, Solomons and New Caledonia, which usually have much older foundations than Mangaia. Fiji, for example, has rocks dated to around 40Ma; the oldest in the Solomons are around 60Ma.

Comparing islands on the Australian Plate with islands on the Pacific Plate, such as Mangaia, is like comparing apples with oranges. We will leave the Australian Plate and focus on Pacific Plate, where many of the islands are more than twice as old as Mangaia.

Another contest?

The wave eroded coastal cliff of the uplifted fossil reef (makatea). Cliff is approximately 15 meters high.

While Mangaia is not the oldest island on the Pacific Plate, it can win a restricted contest for the oldest island with exposed volcanic rocks.

When volcanic islands grow on the Pacific Plate their volcanic cores are soon surrounded by an ever-thicker limestone reef, grown by corals. Within about 10Ma the volcanic core sinks below sea level, leaving a lagoon surrounded by a coral reef – an atoll. For example, when Eniwetok atoll in the Marshall Islands was drilled in 1952 there was 1,300m (4,200ft) of limestone before they hit the volcanic core. While the sinking of an island is incredibly slow, given 70Ma the effect can be very dramatic.

All but a few of the old islands on the Pacific Plate have limestone caps completely covering their original volcanic cores. The few exceptions just happen to be six islands in the Australs (Rimatara and Rurutu) and Southern Cooks (Mangaia, Ātiu, Ma‘uke, Miti‘āro). These are the uplifted makatea islands.

 

The makatea islands subsided until they were low volcanic hills surrounded by a wide fringing reef of limestone. At that stage, they stopped sinking and were uplifted so that today each has a dry fossil reef surrounding inland volcanic hills. In our case, the uplift started about 2Ma and Mangaia is the most spectacular, with its fossil reef to 75m elevation and the central hill of Rangimotia at 170m.

Cross-section of Mangaia showing inland volcanic hills, swampy gulch and uplifted limestone fossil reef. The coastal image above shows the cliff on the inside of the reef flat. The steps on the outer uplifted reef formed a different times when the sea level was much than at present.

Mangaia is the oldest of these six makatea islands, and I believe this makes it the oldest island on the Pacific Plate with exposed volcanic rocks.

What about other uplifted islands, such as Niue, Makatea (Tuamotu) and Henderson? While Niue and Makatea are much older islands than Mangaia they have no exposed volcanic rocks, because they were atolls at the time of their uplift.

Although Mangaia is not the oldest island in the Pacific or the Cook Islands, it is definitely the oldest dated island in the Cook-Austral archipelago. And, it is probably the island with the oldest exposed volcanic rocks on the Pacific Plate.

Author’s notes
First published CI News (04 June 2020 condensed) and CI Herald (10 June 2020 in full). This article is the full version.
Posted by Gerald in Geology, Terrestrial, 0 comments
11
Mar
2026

Cook Islands Fruit-Dove (Kūkupa)

Adult and chick – Joseph Brider, 2021

Gerald McCormack, CINHT

The Cook Islands Fruit-Dove(Kūkupa, Ptilinopus rarotongensis) lives only on the islands of Rarotonga and Ātiu, making it a 2-island endemic of the Cook Islands. It was recorded on Ma‘uke in the 1820s but was lost sometime before 1970 – cause unknown. It was also in the fossil record of Mangaia but was lost before the arrival of the Missionaries.

It is the Cook Islands most colourful native bird. Its typical call on Rarotonga is a mournful “OOOOO-OOOO-OOO-OOO-ooo-oo” with each coo being softer and shorter than the one before, while on Ātiu it is typically “OOOOO-OOOOO-ooooooo” with the final note distinctly lower. It is common in the mountain forest of Rarotonga, and in makatea forest of Ātiu. They often venture onto the horticultural areas of both islands, but usually fail to nest successfully because of predation by cats (introduced in the 1820s), and harassment by the Common Myna (introduced to Rarotonga in 1906, and to Ātiu in 1915).

Although few nests have been reported the main nesting season is probably August to October, with one reported in July. In August 1997 Jeanne and Rosaline Tianoa and Georgina Maui reported that they had a Kūkupa nesting in a Lychee tree in their yard in Avarua. The nest was only two metres off the ground and relatively easy to observe. After being told that the details of Kūkupa nesting had never been recorded the women decided to record the behaviour of the birds. Thus began six weeks of detailed observations.

The nest was found on 1st August containing one white egg. The lay-date was unknown but after 12 days the egg hatched on 12 August around dawn. The birds were distinguished by colour and behaviour. Light Pink incubated at night, was smaller, was more greyish in colour, had a white tail-bar, and its beak was shorter, grey and light pink, and it looked away from the observer – the researchers thought this was the female bird, and the bird in the photo has similar features. In contrast, Dark Pink incubated during the day, was larger, was more colourful, had a yellow tail-bar, and its beak was longer, yellow and dark pink, and it stared at the observer. Light Pink’s night-shift usually started around 5pm and continued until around 9am next morning, and during daylight incubation the nest was periodically left unattended for 5-7 minutes at a time.

Mynas regularly approached the nest tree and sometimes harassed the fruit-doves. For example, on chick-day 4 around 4pm a myna landed on the branch near the nest and actually attacked the dove that was standing near the nest. The dove chased the myna away from the nest tree and then returned to sit on the nest.

The chick opened its eyes on chick-day 5 and had a few feathers. By chick-day 9 it was almost covered with small feathers. During these first days an adult was almost always covering the chick, and periodically the chick was fed on a green fluid by pecking inside the adult’s open mouth. After chick-day 9 the chick was able to stand and the adults left it unattended for up to an hour at a time. By chick-day 14 the nestling had small green wing-feathers with yellow and white edges, green tail-feathers with yellow tips, and white down under the tail – the young bird in the photo has similar features and might be about 14 days old. The chick also started to periodically climb onto the branch beside the nest, and the adults started feeding it on berries. On chick-day 16 the chick was hopping from branch to branch after the adult and around 3pm it flew a few times about 30cm from one branch to another towards the adult. At 4.30pm it fell out of the tree and was put back by Mr Tianoa. Chick-day 17 the adult hopped and flew from branch to branch and although the chick hopped along some branches it did not fly.

Chick-day 19 was a day of drama. It dawned to find that Light Pink had been killed in the nest-tree during the night by the cat, which was banished in disgrace to a relative’s place. The chick was attacked by a myna at 8am, and at 9am it flew to a nearby tree. The lone parent attended it most of the time and fed it purple fruit from inside its mouth, and it also put berries on the branch next to the chick. During the next 10 days the young flew from tree to tree calling and was fed by the lone adult, which also chased away harassing mynas several times. From chick-day 22 another Light Pink dove started approaching the nest tree, Dark Pink and the chick. Dark Pink usually chased it away, and a couple of times it attacked the chick. Several times mynas attacked the chick and they were chased away by Dark Pink. On chick-day 30 the adult was still feeding the young; Dark Pink fought off some mynas; and when last seen Dark Pink and its young were flying southwards towards the mountains.

The idea that Light Pink was the female bird could not be verified, but it is consistent with information from other fruit-doves indicating that females are typically smaller and paler in colour than males. Here we also have the interesting further information that the smaller, paler bird incubated throughout the night. The birds were seen to eat the fruits of Cordyline(Rautī, Cordyline fruticosa) and flowers of the Carambola(Raparapa, Averrhoa carambola).

 

Author’s notes

First published Cook Islands Bishop Museum ( 02 March 2005)

This was a very important piece of research. If anybody else has a similar opportunity to observe the details of the nesting behaviour of a Cook Islands bird it would be a pleasure to make it available on this website. Please see the Contact page for more information.

Posted by Gerald in Animals, Birds, 0 comments
11
Mar
2026

Cook Islands’ Largest Butterfly – the Monarch

Monarch Butterfly (Danaus plexippus) Left: Caterpillar Right: adult butterfly – Gerald McCormack

Gerald McCormack, CINHT

Our largest native butterfly is the Monarch Butterfly(Pepe Renga, Danaus plexippus) which is present on all the Southern Group islands. It is orange and black, with a wingspan to 10cm. It is usually seen near the Red Cottonweed(Tirika, Asclepias curassavica), a wayside weed. The adult sucks nectar from a variety of flowers, while the caterpillar requires a plant in the milkweed family, such as Red Cottonweed (aka Butterfly Weed, Bloodflower). The caterpillars grow to 5cm in length, and are covered with narrow yellow, black, and white bands.

Colonising the Pacific

The Monarch was originally an American butterfly but as people spread the American milkweeds to other countries the butterfly was able to colonise them – it is now circumtropical. In the Pacific, the first records were: Hawai‘i 1840, Tonga 1863, Samoa 1867, Rarotonga 1869, Tahiti 1872, Queensland 1870. The first New Zealand records were rather confused but it was regularly collected from 1873, with a possible earlier collection in 1868. These dates are consistent with the theory that the butterfly spread naturally by flying from the Americas to Hawai‘i; then to the Fiji-Tonga area; and, then west to Queensland, east to the Cook Islands and French Polynesia, and southwest to New Zealand.

In the Cook Islands the butterfly is present all the year round, while in North America it undertakes a remarkable migratory journey that takes four or five generations to complete each year. In the Cook Islands we have the Long-tailed Cuckoo(Karavia, Urodynamis taitensis) that migrates each year to New Zealand (3000km each way), and the Pacific Golden-Plover(Tōrea, Pluvialis fulva) that breeds each year in Alaska (9,000km each way) – but imagine a butterfly that can fly from southeast Canada to Mexico (4,000km).

The North American Migration

Monarch Butterflies cannot hibernate and therefore they must migrate from cold regions, like southern Canada and most of the USA, to tropical areas, like Mexico or southern California. In the Cook Islands there is no need to migrate, while in parts of New Zealand there is a partial migration of monarchs to a few warmer wintering sites. However, it is in North America that the migration is most remarkable.

In August the monarchs that develop in southern Canada and in central and eastern USA do not reach sexual maturity, and the nectar they drink is stored as fat rather than used to make eggs. During the fall (August – October) they use their efficient soaring flight, and take advantage of favourable winds, to migrate to the mountains of central Mexico, where they hang in crowds in tall trees from November thru January. Under favourable conditions butterflies from Canada can do the 4,000km journey in about two months – averaging around 70km-a-day. The known record for a one-day passage was a tagged butterfly that covered 430km in 24 hours!

They migrate during the day, and rest up at night and during rainstorms. They navigate using the position of the sun, using their biological clock to compensate for its “movement” across the sky, thereby maintaining a steady course to Mexico. If the sun is hidden by cloud they know its position from the pattern of polarised light in any patch of blue sky. While day-to-day navigation is relatively well understood, how they inherit the information to go to particular wintering sites in Mexico is a mystery.

Many butterflies die during the long migration, especially when the weather is unfavourable. For example, in 2004/2005 few butterflies arrived at the El Rosario reserve, one of the five in Mexican sites. They hung in trees covering a mere 2.2hectares – the least successful migration in 14 years. The cause was thought to be adverse weather. By comparison, the most successful migration was in 1996/97 when they occupied 18 hectares at El Rosario – an estimated 160 million butterflies.

In Mexico in the spring, around February and March, the females mature, mate, and start a northward migration laying their eggs on milkweeds as they go. These wintering butterflies die of old age at around 8 months. The northward migration continues with the next generation (the first generation), who take the usual month to become adults and live for up to six weeks, during which time they lay more than 700 eggs. The migration continues until the fourth or fifth generation, when the shortening days and cooling nights trigger the emergence of the special immature adults. These adults store fat, and undertake the incredible journey to Mexico.

Author’s notes
First published Cook Islands Bishop Museum biodiversity and Natural Heritage website (December 2005), modified/updated (if applicable)
Based on several sources including:
http://www.monarchwatch.org
http://www.learner.org/jnorth/search/Monarch.html
Ram, Anahi (2005) Mexico sees bigger butterfly migration. Reuters, Nov 20. El Rosario, Mexico.
Gibbs, G.W. (1980) New Zealand Butterflies – Identification and Life History. Collins, Auckland.
Moorhouse, Anna (2005) Migrating Monarchs Need UV Light to Stay on the Straight and Narrow Journal of Young Investigators. Vol. 12.

 

Posted by Gerald in Insects, 0 comments
10
Mar
2026

Mato – Cyclones Make it Flower

Gerald McCormack, CINHT

Flowering Mato tree – Rarotonga, Cook Islands – Gerald McCormack

Rarotonga has one of the last pristine native-forests in Polynesia. The ancient Polynesian settlers removed the forest on the lower hills and as these became infertile they developed into the Fernlands. After European Contact, especially after 1823, many new plants were introduced and some of these were planted in the mountains, especially cotton, coffee, and bananas. A Disturbed Forest of Tree Hibiscus (‘Au, Hibiscus tiliaceus) and invasive shrubs now cover these areas. Inland of the Fernland and the Disturbed Forest there remains a near-pristine native forest, protected from people by being too steep for horticulture and by the absence of trees suitable for timber.

The native forest is green except for the few white-leaved Candlenut Trees (Tuitui, Aleurites moluccanus), which are conspicuous from afar. However, in recent weeks many inland trees have turned pink and then cream. These colours are caused by the profusion of pink buds and then cream-coloured flowers on Cook Islands Homalium (Mato, Homalium acuminatum), which were damaged in the February cyclones.

The Cook Islands Homalium (Mato) is the most common tree in the native forests of inland Rarotonga, with a few also occurring in the makatea forest of Mangaia. As its name implies, it is a unique tree of the Cook Islands and is considered a 2-island endemic. Homalium has also been recently discovered on Rimatara in the Austral Islands and this might be the same species as our Mato.

Trees have a single trunk, and shrubs have several main stems arising from the base. The Mato tree is unusual because it usually has a few trunks arising from the base – it is like a gigantic shrub. Where these trunks join there is often a cavity with water, which is an ideal breeding site for the day-biting Polynesian Mosquito (Aedes polynesiensis). The great hardness of Mato and the relatively small diameter of its trunks made it unpopular for timber – a feature that probably saved the native forest from early destruction by loggers.

The flowers of the Mato are rarely seen, although a careful search usually reveals a few during summer. However, after a severe cyclone Mato flowers in extreme profusion, especially on branches that have lost their leaves. When the road was developed to the Tūpapa Water Intake there was a Mato tree pushed over by a bulldozer, which remained alive with a few roots in the ground. A few weeks later this half-dead tree flowered profusely. It is a feature of Mato that after a time of physical stress, as caused by severe wind (and an attacking bulldozer) they produce an abundance of flowers.

The flowers develop rapidly and are soon shed with one small seed. The seed germinates quickly so the seedling can take advantage of the increased sunlight penetrating the forest floor after a cyclone.

Mato is very conspicuous along ridges, as on the Avatiu side of the Cross-island Walk. The long and powerful surface-roots of Mato provide hikers with reliable footholds, but more importantly they literally hold the ridges together. Mato trees, which are rarely uprooted by even the severest cyclones, are very important in reducing soil erosion in the mountains.

 

Author’s notes

First published CINEWS (16 April 2005 ), modified/updated (10 March 2026)

Posted by Gerald in Plants, 0 comments
10
Mar
2026
The World’s Largest Frogfish

The World’s Largest Frogfish

Gerald McComack, CINHT

Pupuke Robati’s Frogfish caught 3km west of Rarotonga – Gerald McCormack

Frogfishes are a family of fishes that look like misshapen toads – hence the name frogfishes. They are usually less than 20cm long, with some species less than 5cm in total length. They are sedentary ambush-feeders. Unsuspecting prey are attracted to a small beacon on the frogfish’s snout only to discover they are falling into an enormous gaping mouth. Because their life-style is similar to the stonefish they look rather similar in appearance, although the beacon above the mouth is a giveaway. Frogfish do not have the defensive poisonous spines that make stonefish so feared.

On Easter Monday Pupuke Robati Jnr was trolling about 3km west of Rarotonga when he snagged a large grotesque fish, 2-3 metres below the surface. Having never seen such a thing before, he kept it and discussed it with Ian Bertram. They concluded that it was obviously a bottom living fish, and it was very strange that it was caught at the surface. Natural Heritage photographed the fish and emailed an image to Jack Randall at the Bishop Museum in Honolulu – a world authority on tropical fish. Jack identified it as Antennarius scriptissimus, noting that he had come across one in Tahiti a few years ago. Professor Ted Pietsch of Washington University (Seattle), the world authority on frogfish, confirmed the identification and provided additional information.

This species, which has no English name, is one of the most rare and least known frogfishes. It is known from six specimens from Reunion (west Indian Ocean), Philippines, Japan (2), North Island (New Zealand), and Tahiti. The largest specimen was about 35cm total length, which makes Pupuke’s fish at 50cm the world’s largest. Pupuke’s fish is not only the largest of its species, it is the largest of its family – it is the granddaddy of all frogfish! Unfortunately we are not in a position to give the species an English name but Pupuke’s Greater Frogfish would seem about right – and thanks to his curiosity the specimen is available to science. The specimen will be preserved at the University of Washington.

The addition of this new record to the Cook Islands Biodiversity Database brings the total number of marine fish (including sharks) to 633. Seven other new records have been added this year: Kevin Salisbury on Pukapuka added four, and Graham McDonald on Rarotonga and Manuae added three.

Author’s notes

First published CINEWS (April 2005 )

Posted by Gerald in Animals, Marine, 0 comments
10
Mar
2026
Rimatara Lorikeet Reintroduction Programme

Rimatara Lorikeet Reintroduction Programme

Gerald McComack, CINHT

Left: Adult Rimatara Lorikeet – Gerald McCormack. Right: illustration of traditional headress from Ātiu, using the feathers of the Rimatara lorikeet – Judith Kunzlé

It is planned to reintroduce the endangered Rimatara Lorikeet (‘Ura, Vini kuhlii) to Ātiu in the Cook Islands from Rimatara in French Polynesia in July 2007 to establish a reserve population. The programme is being implemented by four organisations: the Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust (CINHT), an agency of the Cook Islands government; Te Ipukarea Society (TIS), the Cook Islands affiliate of BirdLife International; the Ornithological Society of Polynesia (MANU), the French Polynesia affiliate of BirdLife International; and Zoological Society of San Diego (San Diego Zoo).

The programme has the support of the President of French Polynesia, Oscar Temaru, the Ministre de l’Environment, the Cook Islands Government, the community of Rimatara, and the traditional chiefs of Atiu. Most of the funding will be provided by the 2006 British Birdwatching Fair through BirdLife International, with co-funding from Fonds Français pour le Pacifique, San Diego Zoo, NZ Department of Conservation, Air Rarotonga, and the Pacific Development and Conservation Trust.

The transfer of this endangered species requires CITES approval to move it between countries, and the special support from aviation control, immigration, and quarantine to enable direct Rimatara-Atiu flights for birds and personnel.

Biogeographic and cultural setting

The Southern Group of the Cook Islands and the Austral Archipelago of French Polynesia are an island chain 2000 km long. Although the chain mainly formed as the Pacific Plate passed over the Macdonald Hotspot at the southeast end, there are several anomalies and the chain has been described as a Maverick among hotspot island-chains. The islands have a closely linked biodiversity, and share several unique species.

Aitutaki to Mangaia, the eight islands of the Southern Group, form a cluster about 300km across, while the nearest peopled-islands of the Australs are Rimatara and Rurutu, about 400km to the southeast. Although Polynesians might have first settled some of these islands around 700 AD, the present inhabitants are Eastern Polynesians from the Society Islands who arrived periodically from around 1,000 AD. Cultural links between the Southern Cooks and Australs continued after the arrival of the first European settlers in the 1820s, and it was not until the 1930s that the political boundary, established in the 1880s, asserted itself as a discouragement to Cook Islands – Austral travel and communication.

Former and present distribution

Figure 1: Map depicting former and present range of the Rinatara Lorikeet (Vini kuhlii)

The fossil record and oral traditions show that the Rimatara Lorikeet (‘Ura) was formerly a native bird on most of the Southern Cook Islands, where it was known as the Kura. It was much prized for its small red feathers, which were used for chiefly adornment, and for decorating ceremonial headdresses [see the Ātiu headdress in the photograph above]. The chiefs of Tahiti and the Societies also anciently made extensive use of red feathers, especially on the famous red loincloth (‘ura maro). Most of the red feathers probably came from the Kura of the Cook Islands and Rimatara. Local oral tradition recounts that the last feather harvest in the Cook Islands was by a team from Aitutaki to Manuae around the time of Captain Cook’s visit in the 1770s. The lorikeet was not recorded in the Cook Islands by any European visitors and probably became extinct there before the Missionaries arrived in the 1820s. The archaeological record and early-recorded traditions indicate that the lorikeet provided red feathers in ancient times on Rimatara, while there is no indications that it was anciently on Rurutu or Tubuai.

Today the Rimatara Lorikeet survives only on Rimatara, within its former natural range, and there are two populations in the northern Line Islands of Kiribati, where it was introduced in historical times. This lorikeet is listed in the IUCN Red List as “Endangered”, because of its small population and limited distribution. It is also listed on Appendix II of CITES, which means it needs a CITES export permit to be moved to another country. The other two lorikeets of French Polynesia and the Cook Islands, the Blue Lorikeet (Vini peruviana) and the Ultramarine Lorikeet (Vini ultramarina), are also on the Red List and CITES.

1992 research and recommendations

In 1992 Tom and Ellen Winser of England made their yacht Ardevora available to take the two Cook Islands Natural Heritage staff to Rimatara to assess the population status and habitat requirements of the Rimatara Lorikeet. The population was estimated at 900 birds and, surprisingly, most were living in the horticultural zone of the island, which was dominated by recently introduced trees and shrubs. A preliminary survey found Pacific Rat (Rattus exulans), Norway Rat (Rattus norvegicus), but no Ship Rat (Rattus rattus).

Since around 1900 the other two lorikeets of French Polynesia, the Blue Lorikeet and the Ultramarine Lorikeet, have both undergone a drastic decline in numbers and been lost from several islands. There was considerable circumstantial evidence that the primary problem was the Ship Rat, which probably started spreading throughout the islands sometime after the 1850s. With the other two species of rat already present on Rimatara, the eventual arrival of Ship Rat seemed certain, and this would have inevitably led to the extinction of the lorikeet in its last bastion within its natural range.

The Natural Heritage staff recommended two actions to reduce the chance of extinction within the South Pacific: (1) increase quarantine procedures and awareness on Rimatara; and (2) establish a reserve population on a Ship Rat-free island within its former natural range, namely in the Southern Cooks. Because the last Queen of Rimatara protected the bird, we also recommended that this be honoured by changing the usual English name from Kuhl’s Lorikeet to Rimatara Lorikeet.

Suitability of Ātiu

Fieldwork undertaken by several people soon made it clear that of the peopled-islands in the Southern Group, only Ātiu and Aitutaki did not have Ship Rat, and were therefore the only candidates for establishing a reserve population. Aitutaki was ruled out because it has the Blue Lorikeet, locally called Kurāmo‘o, which would compete with the reintroduced lorikeet for food and nest sites. Ātiu was therefore the only peopled-island suitable for a reintroduction programme.

Satellite images showing the comparative size of Ātiu and Rimatara Islands

Ātiu and Rimatara are very similar. Geologically they are both raised-islands, consisting of central volcanic hills, surrounded by a discontinuous swampland, which is inside a rampart of ancient reefal-limestone (makatea) – continuous on Ātiu and discontinuous on Rimatara. Ātiu, at 6km diameter, is twice as wide and more than four times the area of Rimatara: 29km² to 9km². On both islands native forest continues to thrive on the rugged makatea; the infertile inland hills are covered with native ferns and exotic forests; and the fertile lower slopes and valleys have been transformed into complex zone of horticulture. The native plants and the introduced plants of the two islands are very similar.

The only factor on Ātiu that might prevent a successful reintroduction is the presence of the Common Myna (Acridotheres tristis), which was introduced in 1915 to control the Coconut Stick-insect (Graeffea crouanii). However, the Blue Lorikeet, which was introduced to Aitutaki sometime before 1899, has continued to flourish in the presence of mynas, which were introduced in 1916. There is therefore good reason to predict that the presence of mynas will not prevent a successful reintroduction of the Rimatara Lorikeet to Ātiu. [For further details see: McCormack, G. & Künzle, J. The ‘Ura or Rimatara Lorikeet Vini kuhlii: its former range, present status, and conservation priorities. Bird Conservation International (1996) 6:325-334.]

Increasing support

In 2000, the World Wide Fund for Nature sponsored a follow-up expedition to Rimatara to reassess the status of the ‘Ura and the Ship Rat. The lorikeet population was estimated at 750 birds, and the absence of Ship Rat was confirmed, while it was noted that Pacific Rat was very abundant in the Horticultural Zone. The ‘Ātiu Queen, Rongomatane Ariki was a member of the expedition and the people of Rimatara agreed to give her up to twenty birds to re-establish the lorikeet on her island.

The reintroduction proposal then moved into limbo because of frequent political change in French Polynesia, and in the Cook Islands. In January 2005, a leading ornithologist in French Polynesia, Jean-Claude Thibault prepared a report for the Government of French Polynesia on the birds of Rimatara. In the report he recommended as a matter of urgency the establishment of a reserve population of the Rimatara Lorikeet in the Cook Islands. This was followed in March by a letter from the Natural Heritage Trust to the new President of French Polynesia, Oscar Temaru. Prime Minister, the Hon. Jim Marurai, presented the letter to the President, and subsequently the President requested an assessment of the proposal by the Ornithological Society of Polynesia (MANU). MANU, which had supported the proposal since the mid-1990s, became the French Polynesia partner in the reintroduction programme.

In July 2005 BirdLife International included the project as part of their Pacific Parrot Programme, which has been accepted for funding by the August 2006 British Birdwatching Fair. In November 2005 the Cook Islands Government approved the reintroduction and establish a Taskforce. In March 2006 San Diego Zoo agreed to assist with implementation by providing staff experienced in handling lorikeets and a pathologist/veterinarian to implement a rigorous disease management regime. And, in April 2006, the last physical obstacle was overcome – the new Rimatara Airport opened for commercial traffic. In July 2006, the French Polynesian Ministre de l’Environment organised a meeting in Tahiti of all relevant government agencies and they all showed positive support for the proposal. As expected the most critical issue was the adequacy of disease control, and an emergent idea was the need for a government-to-government MOU.

CBD commitments

The Cook Islands is a party to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), which has as a fundamental goal, the equitable sharing of the benefits of biodiversity. In the case of the Rimatara Lorikeet reintroduction, the people of Rimatara are showing great conservation awareness in allowing a reserve population to be established on an island in another country, and great generosity in allowing Ātiu to regain a bird of cultural significance, and a bird that will be important for Ātiu ecotourism. In the spirit of the CBD, there will be a community-to-community Memorandum of Understanding in which Ātiu people acknowledge themselves as custodians of the lorikeet, that the people of Rimatara remain the sole owners of the bird, and that any future export of lorikeets from Ātiu will require the approval of Rimatara and a sharing of benefits. While the community-to-community MOU captures the spirit of the CBD for the communities, it would not stand in international law, which is why the International Relations Department at the July meeting proposed the need for a government-to-government MOU. In addition, if suitable arrangements can be made, the Pacific Pigeon (Rupe, Ducula pacifica) will be concurrently introduced from Ātiu to Rimatara or another island in French Polynesia.

The transfer

A team from San Diego Zoo, with support personnel from the Cook Islands and Tahiti, will capture and transfer the lorikeets on Air Rarotonga. With the support of government officials in French Polynesia and the Cook Islands to make suitable immigration and quarantine arrangements, it is planned to reintroduce the lorikeet in July 2007. Although there are no known serious bird diseases in French Polynesia or the Cook Islands, the San Diego vet/pathologist will implement a rigorous disease protocol. The proposed concurrent pigeon transfer will mainly involve a team from the Department of Conservation in New Zealand, and it will also have a rigorous disease management system.

Post-transfer monitoring

The transferred birds will be banded, and during the first four years, CINHT and TIS will work with Ātiu residents, especially senior college students, to map the locations of all transferred birds and their unbanded offspring. If breeding success is unreasonably low an intensive investigation will be undertaken during the breeding season to identify problems and develop solutions.

Post-introduction outcomes

Right: Adult perched on Banana flower. Left: nest with fledgling – Ātiu, Gerald McCormack 

The first nest was recorded in August 2008. The fledgling was seriously harassed by Common Myna, and a myna eradication programme began in May 2009.

In June 2010 a group of eight Rimatara students visited Ātiu for a cultural exchange and to see for themselves how their favourite bird, the ‘Ura was coping in its new home. They had a great time and saw many ‘Ura flying free.

As of June 2013 we estimate that there are over 500 lorikeets, and flocks of 6-12 birds are relatively common, feeding on bananas in the late afternoon. Such flocks usually have a few juvenile birds.

 

 

Author’s notes

First published CINEWS(06 May 2006), modified/updated (05 August 2006) and (10 March 2026)

This report has been updated as the programme has advanced

Bishop museum (posted 3/10/2005)
Illustration: Judith Kunzlé

Posted by Gerald in Animals, Biodiversity, Birds, Culture, Endangered, 0 comments
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